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AMC3 UAS.SPEC.050(1)(d) Responsibilities of the UAS operator

Available versions for ERULES-1963177438-19505

ED Decision 2022/002/R found in: Unmanned Aircraft Systems (2019/947 and 2019/945) Part-UAS (Jul 2024)

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AMC3 UAS.SPEC.050(1)(d) Responsibilities of the UAS operator

ED Decision 2022/002/R

UAS OPERATION-SPECIFIC ENDORSEMENT MODULES

Depending on the type and risk of the intended UAS operation, the UAS operator may propose, as part of the application for an operational authorisation, additional theoretical knowledge training in combination with the practical-skills training that is specific to the intended UAS operation as described in the OM.

The practical-skills training should at least contain the practical competencies that are described in [AMC2 UAS.OPEN.030(2)(b)](#_DxCrossRefBm1106656882) ‘UAS operations in subcategory A2’, which may include relevant emergency and contingency procedures. However, the UAS operator may adapt that training to the level of automation of the UAS.

During the practical-skills training, the remote pilot should list the relevant emergency and contingency procedures, which are defined in the OM and are peculiar to flight over known populated areas or over assemblies of people or increased air risk, in a given area of operation, and should describe the basic conditions for each kind of emergency as well as the related recovery techniques to be applied during flight for the emergencies that are defined in the OM. Depending on the criticality of the situation and on the available time to react, the remote pilot should memorise some procedures, while for other procedures, they may consult a checklist. The emergency and contingency procedures may involve also other personnel; in that case, the UAS operator should define the practical-skills training needed for them.

The remote pilot only needs to complete the relevant operation-specific endorsement modules that reflect the intended UAS operation. For example, in case of transport of cargo, the remote pilot should complete the related training module ‘Transport and/or dropping of cargo’; however, if the cargo contains dangerous goods, then the remote pilot should also complete the training module ‘Transport of dangerous goods’.

The assurance level of the operation-specific endorsement modules is determined by the related assurance integrity level (e.g. SAIL) according to the respective specific operational risk assessment.

Relevant UAS operation-specific endorsement modules should be reflected in the documentation of the remote pilot’s competencies.

The following UAS operation-specific endorsement modules and the areas to be covered are recommended:

(a) night operations;

(b) overflight (flight over known populated areas or over assemblies of people);

(d) low-altitude (below 500 ft) operations;

(e) flights in non-segregated airspace;

(f) transport and/or dropping of cargo;

(g) transport of dangerous goods;

(h) operations with multiple UASs and swarms;

(i) UA launch and recovery using special equipment;

(j) flying over mountainous terrain.

Note: The ‘Rationale’ in grey-font italics under the ‘Learning objectives’ column is provided for explanatory purposes and does not form part of the proposed rule text.

<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><thead><tr><td valign="top" width="140">Operation-specific endorsement modules</td><td valign="top" width="172">Areas to be covered</td><td valign="top" width="286">Learning objectives</td></tr></thead><tr><td rowspan="5" valign="top" width="140">Night operations</td><td valign="top" width="172">General</td><td valign="top" width="286">Recognise the meaning of the definition of ‘night’ or other similar wording that is used for night flight.Rationale: In <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32011R1178&amp;qid=1653928032098">Regulation (EU) No 1178/2011</a> (the ‘Aircrew Regulation’), ‘night’ for manned aviation ‘means the period between the end of evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight or such other period between sunset and sunrise as may be prescribed by the appropriate authority’.Some national laws use the sunset and sunrise times for the definition of a night flight. ‘Sunset’ is defined as the daily disappearance of the upper limb of the sun below the horizon. This time depends on the latitude and longitude of the viewpoint. There are many websites and apps to find out the sunset and sunrise times at a specific location.Recognise the benefits of illuminating the operational area, especially during the critical phases of take-off and landing.Recognise that during night flight it is hard to estimate the distance between the UA and other obstacles if visibility is only ensured by the lights of the UA.Recognise that a visual obstacle avoidance system may be less accurate in night-time operations.Understand that if the sight of the UA is lost at night, return-to-home (RTH) should be immediately followed.Rationale: During daytime, it is sometimes difficult to see the position of the UA, which is even more difficult at night.Recognise that an infrared radiation (IR) camera allows one to see enough at night. Turning off the front green flashing light might improve the view because there will be no reflection in the on-board camera.Recognise that the IR camera does not help in case of rain/humidity, and that the IR visibility significantly decreases.Explain the use of the green flashing light at night.Explain the use of navigation lights, position lights, anti-collision lights, and other lights for UA controllability.Explain the use of lights (e.g. navigation, position, or anti-collision lights) for recognising the presence of manned aircraft.Rationale: Those lights show where the UA is positioned and the direction in which the UA is aligned.For manned aircraft, a red navigation light is located on the leading edge of the left-wing tip and a green navigation light on the leading edge of the rightwing tip (for helicopters, on the left and right sides of the cockpit). A white navigation light is positioned on the tail as far aft as possible. High-intensity strobe lights are also located in those positions. They are used as anti-collision lights and flash twice after a short break. A red rotating beacon is also part of the anti-collision lights.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Degradation of visual acuity</td><td valign="top" width="286">Recognise that flying the UA at night degrades visual perception.Recognise night myopia, caused by the increasing pupil size. At low-light levels, without distant objects to focus on, the focusing mechanism of the eye may go to a resting myopic position.If night-vision goggles are used, know how they function.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Night illusions</td><td valign="top" width="286">Define the term ‘night illusion’.Recognise and overcome visual illusions that are caused by darkness, and understand the physiological conditions that may degrade night vision.State the limitations of night vision techniques at night and by day.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Altered visual-scanning techniques</td><td valign="top" width="286">State the limitations of the different visual-scanning techniques at night and by day.Rationale: Despite the value of electronic means of conflict detection, physical lookout remains an important defence against the loss of visual separation for all types of aircraft.To avoid collisions, the remote pilot should visually scan effectively from the moment the UA starts moving until it comes to a stop at the end of the flight. Collision threats are present everywhere.Before take-off, the remote pilot should visually check the take-off area to ensure that there are no other objects. After take-off, the remote pilot should continue to visually scan to ensure a safe departure of the UA with no obstacles.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Altered identification of obstacles</td><td valign="top" width="286">Explain the effect of obstacles on the take-off distance that is required at night.Rationale: The remote pilot should know the flight area where the UA will fly at night. Objects look different and power lines are nearly invisible at night. It is, therefore, advisable that the remote pilot conduct a test flight during the daytime.</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="9" valign="top" width="140">Overflight (flight over known populated areas or over assemblies of people)</td><td valign="top" width="172">Identification of populated areas and assemblies of people</td><td valign="top" width="286">Explain the definition of ‘populated area’ and ‘assemblies of people’.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Optimising flight paths to reduce risk of exposure</td><td valign="top" width="286">Explain the effects of the following variables on the flight path and take-off distances:— take-off procedure;— obstacle clearances both laterally and vertically;— understand the lethality of a UAS including debris area through flying parts after a crash; and— recognise the importance of a defined emergency landing area.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Likely operating sites and alternative sites</td><td valign="top" width="286">Recognise the different operating sites and alternative sites on the route of the overflight.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Adequate clearance for wind effects, especially in urban environment</td><td valign="top" width="286">Explain how the wind changes at very low height due to its interaction with orography and buildings.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Obstructions (wires, masts, buildings, etc.)</td><td valign="top" width="286">Explain the effect of obstacles on the required takeoff distance.Interpret all available procedures, data, and information regarding obstructions that could be encountered during overflight</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Avoiding third-party interference with the UA</td><td valign="top" width="286">Explain how to avoid third-party interference with the UA.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Minimum separation distances from persons, vessels, vehicles, and structures</td><td valign="top" width="286">Explain the importance of minimum separation distances from persons, vessels, vehicles, and structures.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Impact of electromagnetic interference, i.e. high‑intensity radio transmissions</td><td valign="top" width="286">Describe the physical phenomenon ‘interference’.Explain in which situations electromagnetic interference could occur, particularly with regard to electromagnetic emissions and signal reflections peculiar to an urban environment. Explain their impact on the UAS system (i.e. C2 link GNSS quality, etc.)</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Crowd control strategies and public access</td><td valign="top" width="286">Explain the importance of ensuring that no one is endangered within the take-off and landing area.Describe the different crowd control strategies.Explain the importance of having knowledge of public access.</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="9" valign="top" width="140">BVLOS operations</td><td valign="top" width="172">Operation planning: airspace, terrain, obstacles, expected air traffic, and restricted areas</td><td valign="top" width="286">Explain the operation planning for BVLOS operations:— check the flying conditions (e.g. geographical zone, NOTAM) and obstacles along the planned route;— secure the necessary documentation before the BVLOS operation;— know and comply with the local conditions in the area where the BVLOS operation takes place;— ensure communication with the air traffic controller (ATCO), depending on the type of airspace within which the BVLOS operation is planned to be conducted;— plan the BVLOS operation including flight route and response to contingency and emergency events;— in uncontrolled airspace, check the actual traffic level of manned traffic along the planned route, including low-level traffic such as paragliders, hang gliders, helicopters, model aircraft, seaplanes and other possible traffic;— in uncontrolled airspace, verify that the UAS operation has been notified to manned aviation using, e.g. NOTAM, or other means used by manned aviation;— how to employ airspace observers (AOs), when needed;— consider the C2 link limitations (e.g. maximum range and presence of obstacles); and— use of conspicuity devices or traffic information / detection of incoming aircraft / deconfliction and emergency manoeuvres.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Sensor systems and their limitations</td><td valign="top" width="286">State the limitations of the different sensor systems.Rationale: UASs that are used for BVLOS operations should maintain precise positioning to avoid traffic conflict and to successfully carry out their mission. Environmental features, such as tunnels and urban canyons, can weaken GNSS signals or even cause them to be lost completely. To maintain accuracy in GNSS-denied environments, UA may use real-time kinematic (RTK) capable inertial navigation systems (INSs) that provide information from accelerometers and gyroscopes to accurately estimate position, velocity, heading, and attitude.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Cooperative and non‑cooperative aircraft (airspace surveillance)</td><td valign="top" width="286">Identify the cooperative and non-cooperative detect-and-avoid (DAA) sensor/system capabilities for UA, if applicable.Rationale: Cooperative and non-cooperative DSAA capabilities are key enablers for UA to safely and routinely access all airspace classes.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Roles and responsibilities of the remote pilot to remain clear of collision</td><td valign="top" width="286">Explain the traffic alert system and traffic collision avoidance system (TCAS) phraseologies, and how these systems work.Identify the roles and responsibilities of the remote pilot to remain clear of collision.Explain the collision avoidance methodology that is used in the operation to keep the UA clear of other traffic.Rationale: Collision avoidance is emerging as a key enabler for UAS operations in civil airspace. The operational and technical challenges of UAS collision avoidance are complicated by the wide variety of UA, of their associated missions, and of their ground control capabilities. Numerous technological solutions for collision avoidance are being explored in the UAS community.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Command, control and communication (C3) link performance and limitations</td><td valign="top" width="286">Know the definition of ‘C3’.Understand the relation between communications and effective command and control (C2).Understand the basic C3 structure.Understand the use of true and relative motion displays.Understand the problems inherent in C3.Rationale: C3 cannot be accomplished without two‑way communications. C3 would be impossible unless the remote pilot can collect feedback in some form. Basic to any C3 system is the incorporation of a reliable communications network.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Signal or communications latency for the C2 link</td><td valign="top" width="286">Understand the impact of signal or communications latency on the C2 link.Explain what can cause, and how to detect, a signal or communications latency.Describe the actions that are required following a signal or communications latency.Rationale: BVLOS control may require a satellite communications link that implies a level of signal delay, or signal latency, which may impact on the accuracy of the BVLOS operation.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Planning for the loss of C2 link or for system failure</td><td valign="top" width="286">Understand the impact of a loss of C2 link.Explain what can cause, and how to detect, a system failure.Describe the actions that are required following a loss of C2 link.Describe how to plan the contingency routes in case of a loss of the C2 link.Rationale: It is of utmost importance to keep track of the UASs in civil airspace, and to know what happens if the C2 link between the remote pilot’s ground control station and the UAS is disrupted. In such a loss-of-the-C2-link situation, the UA usually flies on a pre-programmed contingency route based on its flight altitude, orientation, and bearing. The absence of situational awareness and direct communication from the UA makes it difficult or impossible for the ATCOs to discover the real position of the UA and identify if the pre‑programmed contingency route is properly followed impairing the possibility to clear the traffic along its intended route.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Interpreting separate data sources</td><td valign="top" width="286">Interpret different data sources to identify whether during flight the UA follows the planned route.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Crew resource management (CRM)</td><td valign="top" width="286">Explain the importance of CRM for BVLOS operations.</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4" valign="top" width="140">Low-altitude (below 500 ft) operations</td><td valign="top" width="172">Air traffic management (ATM) procedures</td><td valign="top" width="286">Describe the ATM procedures for low-altitude operations.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Radio communications and phraseology</td><td valign="top" width="286">Define the meaning of ‘standard words and phrases’.Recognise, describe, and use the correct standard phraseology for each phase of a visual flight rules (VFR) flight.Explain the selective calling (SelCal) system and aircraft communications addressing and reporting system (ACARS) phraseologies.Explain the traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS) phraseologies.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Situational awareness</td><td valign="top" width="286">Keep situational awareness, especially with low‑level manned aircraft and, if necessary, employ airspace observers (AOs).</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Advanced aviation terminology</td><td valign="top" width="286">Explain the meaning of low-altitude operations related terminology.</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" valign="top" width="140">Flight in non‑segregated airspace</td><td valign="top" width="172">Clear roles and responsibilities</td><td valign="top" width="286">Describe the relationship between the initiating causes (or threats), the hazard (top (main) event), the risk mitigations (the controls and barriers), and the potential consequential results (loss states) when conducting a flight in a non-segregated airspace.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Wake turbulence</td><td valign="top" width="286">State the wake turbulence categories for UA.State the wake turbulence separation minima.</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" valign="top" width="140">Transport and/or dropping of cargo</td><td valign="top" width="172">Weight and balance</td><td valign="top" width="286">Describe the relationship between UA mass and structural stress.Describe why mass should be limited to ensure adequate margins of strength.Describe the relationship between UA mass and aircraft performance.Describe why UA mass should be limited to ensure adequate aircraft performance.Depending on the type of operation, describe the relationship between centre-of-gravity (CG) position and stability/controllability of the UA.Describe the consequences if the CG is in front of the forward limit.Describe the consequences if the CG is behind the aft limit.Describe the relationship between CG position and aircraft performance.Describe the effects of the CG position on the performance parameters (speed, altitude, endurance, and range).Be familiar with the abbreviations regarding mass and balance, e.g. (maximum) take-off mass ((M)TOM), (maximum) landing mass ((M)LM), basic empty mass (BEM), dry operating mass (DOM), operating mass (OM), and zero-fuel mass (ZFM).Describe the effects of changes in the load when dropping an object.Describe the effects of an unintended loss of the load.Rationale: Mass and balance are extremely important for a UA. A UA that is not in balance may become difficult to control. Therefore, the overall balance should be considered when adding payloads, attaching gimbals, etc.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Load securing and awareness of dangerous goods</td><td valign="top" width="286">Calculate the MTOM and the MLM.Explain the reasons for restraining or securing cargo loads.Describe the basic methods of restraining or securing loads.Explain why the transport of dangerous goods by air is subject to an additional training module.State that certain articles and substances, which would otherwise be classified as dangerous goods, may be exempted if they are part of the UA equipment.Rationale: The safe operation of the UAS requires to weigh all cargo in the UA (or provide an accurate estimate of weight using ‘standard’ values), load it correctly, and secure it to prevent loss or movement of the cargo during the flight.Loading should be performed in accordance with the applicable regulations and limitations. The UAS operator’s loading procedures should be in accordance with the instructions given by the person that has the overall responsibility for the loading process for a particular UA flight. These loading instructions should match the requirements for cargo distribution that are included in the UA load and trim sheet.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="140">Transport of dangerous goods</td><td valign="top" width="172">Safe transport of dangerous goods</td><td valign="top" width="286">Explain the terminology relevant to dangerous goods.Be able to recognise dangerous goods and understand their labelling.Be able to interpret the documentation related to dangerous goods.Recognise dangerous goods by using ‘safety data sheets’ and the consumer labelling of the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS).Explain that the provisions for the transport of dangerous goods by air are included in ICAO Doc 9284 ‘Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air’.State the emergency/reporting procedures in case of an event with dangerous goods, including that in the event of a dangerous-goods-related emergency regarding the UA, the remote pilot should inform the ATC organisation of the transport of dangerous goods.Explain the principles of compatibility and segregation of dangerous goods.Explain the special requirements for loading radioactive materials.Explain the use of the dangerous goods list.Explain the procedures for collecting safety data, e.g. reporting accidents, incidents, and occurrences with dangerous goods.Note: The learning objectives should be derived from the Technical Instructions and should be commensurate with the personnel responsibilities.</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5" valign="top" width="140">Operations with multiple UASs and swarms</td><td valign="top" width="172">Limitations related to human factors</td><td valign="top" width="286">Understand the human performance limitations in an operation with multiple UASs, including UAS swarms.List the vital actions that the remote pilot and the persons who assist the remote pilot should perform in case of an emergency descent of the multiple/swarming UASs.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">CRM</td><td valign="top" width="286">Explain the importance of CRM for operations with multiple UASs and swarms.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Navigating multiple platforms</td><td valign="top" width="286">Describe how to navigate multiple platforms.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Recognising system failures</td><td valign="top" width="286">Describe the different failures that may potentially occur during multiple/swarming UAS operations.Explain what to do in the event of a failure.Recognise that the remote pilot can override the system in the event of a failure.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Emergency containment procedures</td><td valign="top" width="286">List the different emergency containment procedures and describe the basic conditions for each kind of emergency.Describe the recovery techniques in the event of engine or battery failure during multiple/swarming UAS operations.</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" valign="top" width="140">UAS launch and recovery using special equipment</td><td valign="top" width="172">Operating procedures</td><td valign="top" width="286">Explain the specific procedures for launch and recovery operations.Explain the impact on the UA’s behaviour when the systems for launch and recovery are operated from a moving vehicle, including ships.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Recognising failures</td><td valign="top" width="286">Describe the different failures that may occur during launch and recovery operations.Explain what to do in the event of a failure.Describe the cases where the remote pilot can override the system in the event of a failure.</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6" valign="top" width="140">Flying over hilly environment</td><td valign="top" width="172">Temperature inversions</td><td valign="top" width="286">Describe the following:— the effect of thermic-induced turbulence near the Earth’s surface;— surface effects;— diurnal and seasonal variations;— the effect of clouds; and— the effect of wind.Rationale: The temperature can affect the density altitude. If the UA flies on a hot and humid day, the remote pilot will experience poor UA performance: as the temperature increases, the air molecules spread out. As a result, the propellers or motors of the UA do not have much air to grab on to.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Orographic lifting</td><td valign="top" width="286">Describe the effect of exploiting orographic lifting (i.e. slope or ridge) and the actions required.Describe the vertical movements, wind shear, and turbulence, which are typical of hilly environment.Rationale: Orographic lifting occurs when an air mass is forced from a low elevation to a higher elevation as it moves over rising terrain. As the air mass gains altitude, it quickly cools down adiabatically, which can raise the relative humidity to 100 %, create clouds and, under the right conditions, cause precipitation<a href="#_ftn101">[100]</a>.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Higher winds through passes</td><td valign="top" width="286">Describe the effects of wind shear and the actions required when wind shear is encountered at take-off and approach.Describe the precautions to be taken when wind shear is suspected at take-off and approach.Describe the effects of wind shear and the actions required following entry into strong downdraught wind shear.Describe the influence of a mountainous area on a frontal passage.Rationale: In mountainous environment, the wind blows smoothly on the windward side of the mountain. On the leeward side, the wind follows the contours of the terrain and can be quite turbulent: this is called a katabatic wind. The stronger the wind, the higher the downward pressure. Such a wind will push the UA down towards the surface of the mountain. If the remote pilot does not know how to recognise a downdraft, which is downward moving air, the situation can become quite challenging.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Mountain waves</td><td valign="top" width="286">Explain the origin and formation of mountain waves.State the conditions necessary for the formation of mountain waves.Describe the structure and properties of mountain waves.Explain how mountain waves may be identified through their associated meteorological phenomena.Explain that mountain wave effects may exceed the performance or structural capability of the UA.Explain that mountain wave effects may be propagated from low to high levels.Indicate the turbulent zones (mountain waves, rotors) on a drawing of a mountain chain.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">High- and low-pressure patterns</td><td valign="top" width="286">Describe the movements of fronts and pressure systems, and the life cycle of a midlatitude depression.State the rules for predicting the direction and the speed of movement of fronts.State the difference in the speed of cold and warm fronts.State the rules for predicting the direction and the speed of frontal depressions.</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" width="172">Density altitude effects</td><td valign="top" width="286">Define pressure altitude and air density altitude.Explain the effects of all-up mass (AUM), pressure, temperature, density altitude, and humidity.Explain the influence of density altitude on the equilibrium of forces and moments in a stable hover, if applicable.Rationale: Higher-density altitude means thinner air, and thinner air means that the remote pilot will experience poor UA performance. The propellers or motors of the UA do not have much air to grab on to. Lower-density altitude means thicker, denser air, and higher UA performance.This knowledge is very important when the remote pilot flies in a mountainous or other high-elevation environment.</td></tr></table>

---

[[100]](#_ftnref101) For examples of such service providers, see the footnote in E.6 ‘OSOs related to the deterioration of external systems supporting UAS operations’ of [Annex E to AMC1 Article 11](https://dxweb.easa.europa.eu/dx4/topics/part-uas_annexi012e.docx) of the UAS Regulation.

##### AMC3 UAS.SPEC.050(1)(d) Responsibilities of the UAS operator

*ED
Decision 2022/002/R*

**UAS
OPERATION-SPECIFIC ENDORSEMENT MODULES**

Depending on the type and risk of the intended UAS operation, the UAS
operator may propose, as part of the application for an operational
authorisation, additional theoretical knowledge training in
combination with the practical-skills training that is specific to
the intended UAS operation as described in the OM.

The practical-skills training should at least contain the practical
competencies that are described in [AMC2 UAS.OPEN.030(2)(b)](#_DxCrossRefBm1295819200)
‘UAS operations in subcategory A2’, which may include relevant
emergency and contingency procedures. However, the UAS operator may
adapt that training to the level of automation of the UAS.

During the practical-skills training, the remote pilot should list
the relevant emergency and contingency procedures, which are defined
in the OM and are peculiar to flight over known populated areas or
over assemblies of people or increased air risk, in a given area of
operation, and should describe the basic conditions for each kind of
emergency as well as the related recovery techniques to be applied
during flight for the emergencies that are defined in the OM.
Depending on the criticality of the situation and on the available
time to react, the remote pilot should memorise some procedures,
while for other procedures, they may consult a checklist. The
emergency and contingency procedures may involve also other
personnel; in that case, the UAS operator should define the
practical-skills training needed for them.

The remote pilot only needs to complete the relevant
operation-specific endorsement modules that reflect the intended UAS
operation. For example, in case of transport of cargo, the remote
pilot should complete the related training module ‘Transport and/or
dropping of cargo’; however, if the cargo contains dangerous goods,
then the remote pilot should also complete the training module
‘Transport of dangerous goods’.

The assurance level of the operation-specific endorsement modules is
determined by the related assurance integrity level (e.g. SAIL)
according to the respective specific operational risk assessment.

Relevant UAS operation-specific endorsement modules should be
reflected in the documentation of the remote pilot’s competencies.

The following UAS operation-specific endorsement modules and the
areas to be covered are recommended:

(a) night operations;

(b) overflight (flight over known populated areas or over assemblies
of people);

(d) low-altitude (below 500 ft) operations;

(e) flights in non-segregated airspace;

(f) transport and/or dropping of cargo;

(g) transport of dangerous goods;

(h) operations with multiple UASs and swarms;

(i) UA launch and recovery using special equipment;

(j) flying over mountainous terrain.

*Note: The ‘Rationale’ in grey-font italics under the ‘Learning
objectives’ column is provided for explanatory purposes and does
not form part of the proposed rule text.*

<table bgcolor="#d9d9d9" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<thead>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#808080">
Operation-specific
				endorsement modules
</td>
<td bgcolor="#808080">
Areas
				to be covered
</td>
<td bgcolor="#808080">
Learning
				objectives
</td>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#808080" rowspan="5">
Night
				operations
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
General
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Recognise
				the meaning of the definition of ‘night’ or other similar
				wording that is used for night flight.

Rationale:
				In <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32011R1178&amp;qid=1653928032098">Regulation
				(EU) No 1178/2011</a> (the ‘Aircrew
				Regulation’), ‘night’ for manned aviation ‘means the
				period between the end of evening civil twilight and the
				beginning of morning civil twilight or such other period between
				sunset and sunrise as may be prescribed by the appropriate
				authority’.

Some
				national laws use the sunset and sunrise times for the definition
				of a night flight. ‘Sunset’ is defined as the daily
				disappearance of the upper limb of the sun below the horizon.
				This time depends on the latitude and longitude of the viewpoint.
				There are many websites and apps to find out the sunset and
				sunrise times at a specific location.

Recognise
				the benefits of illuminating the operational area, especially
				during the critical phases of take-off and landing.

Recognise
				that during night flight it is hard to estimate the distance
				between the UA and other obstacles if visibility is only ensured
				by the lights of the UA.

Recognise
				that a visual obstacle avoidance system may be less accurate in
				night-time operations.

Understand
				that if the sight of the UA is lost at night, return-to-home
				(RTH) should be immediately followed.

Rationale:
				During daytime, it is sometimes difficult to see the position of
				the UA, which is even more difficult at night.

Recognise
				that an infrared radiation (IR) camera allows one to see enough
				at night. Turning off the front green flashing light might
				improve the view because there will be no reflection in the
				on-board camera.

Recognise
				that the IR camera does not help in case of rain/humidity, and
				that the IR visibility significantly decreases.

Explain
				the use of the green flashing light at night.

Explain
				the use of navigation lights, position lights, anti-collision
				lights, and other lights for UA controllability.

Explain
				the use of lights (e.g. navigation, position, or anti-collision
				lights) for recognising the presence of manned aircraft.

Rationale:
				Those lights show where the UA is positioned and the direction in
				which the UA is aligned.
For
				manned aircraft, a red navigation light is located on the leading
				edge of the left-wing tip and a green navigation light on the
				leading edge of the rightwing tip (for helicopters, on the left
				and right sides of the cockpit). A white navigation light is
				positioned on the tail as far aft as possible. High-intensity
				strobe lights are also located in those positions. They are used
				as anti-collision lights and flash twice after a short break. A
				red rotating beacon is also part of the anti-collision lights.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Degradation
				of visual acuity
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Recognise
				that flying the UA at night degrades visual perception.

Recognise
				night myopia, caused by the increasing pupil size. At low-light
				levels, without distant objects to focus on, the focusing
				mechanism of the eye may go to a resting myopic position.
If
				night-vision goggles are used, know how they function.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Night
				illusions
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Define
				the term ‘night illusion’.

Recognise
				and overcome visual illusions that are caused by darkness, and
				understand the physiological conditions that may degrade night
				vision.
State
				the limitations of night vision techniques at night and by day.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Altered
				visual-scanning techniques
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
State
				the limitations of the different visual-scanning techniques at
				night and by day.

Rationale:
				Despite the value of electronic means of conflict detection,
				physical lookout remains an important defence against the loss of
				visual separation for all types of aircraft.

To
				avoid collisions, the remote pilot should visually scan
				effectively from the moment the UA starts moving until it comes
				to a stop at the end of the flight. Collision threats are present
				everywhere.
Before
				take-off, the remote pilot should visually check the take-off
				area to ensure that there are no other objects. After take-off,
				the remote pilot should continue to visually scan to ensure a
				safe departure of the UA with no obstacles.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Altered
				identification of obstacles
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Explain
				the effect of obstacles on the take-off distance that is required
				at night.
Rationale:
				The remote pilot should know the flight area where the UA will
				fly at night. Objects look different and power lines are nearly
				invisible at night. It is, therefore, advisable that the remote
				pilot conduct a test flight during the daytime.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#808080" rowspan="9">
Overflight
				(flight over known populated areas or over assemblies of people)
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Identification
				of populated areas and assemblies of people
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Explain
				the definition of ‘populated area’ and ‘assemblies of
				people’.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Optimising
				flight paths to reduce risk of exposure
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Explain
				the effects of the following variables on the flight path and
				take-off distances:

				—	take-off
				procedure;

				—	obstacle
				clearances both laterally and vertically;

				—	understand
				the lethality of a UAS including debris area through flying parts
				after a crash; and

				—	recognise
				the importance of a defined emergency landing area.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Likely
				operating sites and alternative sites
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Recognise
				the different operating sites and alternative sites on the route
				of the overflight.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Adequate
				clearance for wind effects, especially in urban environment
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Explain
				how the wind changes at very low height due to its interaction
				with orography and buildings.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Obstructions
				(wires, masts, buildings, etc.)
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Explain
				the effect of obstacles on the required takeoff distance.
Interpret
				all available procedures, data, and information regarding
				obstructions that could be encountered during overflight
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Avoiding
				third-party interference with the UA
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Explain
				how to avoid third-party interference with the UA.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Minimum
				separation distances from persons, vessels, vehicles, and
				structures
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Explain
				the importance of minimum separation distances from persons,
				vessels, vehicles, and structures.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Impact
				of electromagnetic interference, i.e. high‑intensity radio
				transmissions
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Describe
				the physical phenomenon ‘interference’.
Explain
				in which situations electromagnetic interference could occur,
				particularly with regard to electromagnetic emissions and signal
				reflections peculiar to an urban environment. Explain their
				impact on the UAS system (i.e. C2 link GNSS quality, etc.)
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Crowd
				control strategies and public access
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Explain
				the importance of ensuring that no one is endangered within the
				take-off and landing area.

Describe
				the different crowd control strategies.
Explain
				the importance of having knowledge of public access.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#808080" rowspan="9">
BVLOS
				operations
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Operation
				planning: airspace, terrain, obstacles, expected air traffic, and
				restricted areas
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Explain
				the operation planning for BVLOS operations:

				—	check
				the flying conditions (e.g. geographical zone, NOTAM) and
				obstacles along the planned route;

				—	secure
				the necessary documentation before the BVLOS operation;

				—	know
				and comply with the local conditions in the area where the BVLOS
				operation takes place;

				—	ensure
				communication with the air traffic controller (ATCO), depending
				on the type of airspace within which the BVLOS operation is
				planned to be conducted;

				—	plan
				the BVLOS operation including flight route and response to
				contingency and emergency events;

				—	in
				uncontrolled airspace, check the actual traffic level of manned
				traffic along the planned route, including low-level traffic such
				as paragliders, hang gliders, helicopters, model aircraft,
				seaplanes and other possible traffic;

				—	in
				uncontrolled airspace, verify that the UAS operation has been
				notified to manned aviation using, e.g. NOTAM, or other means
				used by manned aviation;

				—	how
				to employ airspace observers (AOs), when needed;

				—	consider
				the C2 link limitations (e.g. maximum range and presence of
				obstacles); and

				—	use
				of conspicuity devices or traffic information / detection of
				incoming aircraft / deconfliction and emergency manoeuvres.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Sensor
				systems and their limitations
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
State
				the limitations of the different sensor systems.
Rationale:
				UASs that are used for BVLOS operations should maintain precise
				positioning to avoid traffic conflict and to successfully carry
				out their mission. Environmental features, such as tunnels and
				urban canyons, can weaken GNSS signals or even cause them to be
				lost completely. To maintain accuracy in GNSS-denied
				environments, UA may use real-time kinematic (RTK) capable
				inertial navigation systems (INSs) that provide information from
				accelerometers and gyroscopes to accurately estimate position,
				velocity, heading, and attitude.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Cooperative
				and non‑cooperative aircraft (airspace surveillance)
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Identify
				the cooperative and non-cooperative detect-and-avoid (DAA)
				sensor/system capabilities for UA, if applicable.
Rationale:
				Cooperative and non-cooperative DSAA capabilities are key
				enablers for UA to safely and routinely access all airspace
				classes.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Roles
				and responsibilities of the remote pilot to remain clear of
				collision
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Explain
				the traffic alert system and traffic collision avoidance system
				(TCAS) phraseologies, and how these systems work.

Identify
				the roles and responsibilities of the remote pilot to remain
				clear of collision.

Explain
				the collision avoidance methodology that is used in the operation
				to keep the UA clear of other traffic.
Rationale:
				Collision avoidance is emerging as a key enabler for UAS
				operations in civil airspace. The operational and technical
				challenges of UAS collision avoidance are complicated by the wide
				variety of UA, of their associated missions, and of their ground
				control capabilities. Numerous technological solutions for
				collision avoidance are being explored in the UAS community.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Command,
				control and communication (C3) link performance and limitations
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Know
				the definition of ‘C3’.

Understand
				the relation between communications and effective command and
				control (C2).

Understand
				the basic C3 structure.

Understand
				the use of true and relative motion displays.

Understand
				the problems inherent in C3.
Rationale:
				C3 cannot be accomplished without two‑way communications.
				C3 would be impossible unless the remote pilot can collect
				feedback in some form. Basic to any C3 system is the
				incorporation of a reliable communications network.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Signal
				or communications latency for the C2 link
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Understand
				the impact of signal or communications latency on the C2 link.

Explain
				what can cause, and how to detect, a signal or communications
				latency.

Describe
				the actions that are required following a signal or
				communications latency.
Rationale:
				BVLOS control may require a satellite communications link that
				implies a level of signal delay, or signal latency, which may
				impact on the accuracy of the BVLOS operation.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Planning
				for the loss of C2 link or for system failure
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Understand
				the impact of a loss of C2 link.

Explain
				what can cause, and how to detect, a system failure.

Describe
				the actions that are required following a loss of C2 link.

Describe
				how to plan the contingency routes in case of a loss of the C2
				link.
Rationale:
				It is of utmost importance to keep track of the UASs in civil
				airspace, and to know what happens if the C2 link between the
				remote pilot’s ground control station and the UAS is disrupted.
				In such a loss-of-the-C2-link situation, the UA usually flies on
				a pre-programmed contingency route based on its flight altitude,
				orientation, and bearing. The absence of situational awareness
				and direct communication from the UA makes it difficult or
				impossible for the ATCOs to discover the real position of the UA
				and identify if the pre‑programmed contingency route is
				properly followed impairing the possibility to clear the traffic
				along its intended route.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Interpreting
				separate data sources
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Interpret
				different data sources to identify whether during flight the UA
				follows the planned route.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Crew
				resource management (CRM)
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Explain
				the importance of CRM for BVLOS operations.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#808080" rowspan="4">
Low-altitude
				(below 500 ft) operations
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Air
				traffic management (ATM) procedures
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Describe
				the ATM procedures for low-altitude operations.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Radio
				communications and phraseology
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Define
				the meaning of ‘standard words and phrases’.

Recognise,
				describe, and use the correct standard phraseology for each phase
				of a visual flight rules (VFR) flight.

Explain
				the selective calling (SelCal) system and aircraft communications
				addressing and reporting system (ACARS) phraseologies.
Explain
				the traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS)
				phraseologies.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Situational
				awareness
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Keep
				situational awareness, especially with low‑level manned
				aircraft and, if necessary, employ airspace observers (AOs).
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Advanced
				aviation terminology
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Explain
				the meaning of low-altitude operations related terminology.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#808080" rowspan="2">
Flight
				in non‑segregated airspace
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Clear
				roles and responsibilities
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Describe
				the relationship between the initiating causes (or threats), the
				hazard (top (main) event), the risk mitigations (the controls and
				barriers), and the potential consequential results (loss states)
				when conducting a flight in a non-segregated airspace.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Wake
				turbulence
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
State
				the wake turbulence categories for UA.
State
				the wake turbulence separation minima.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#808080" rowspan="2">
Transport
				and/or dropping of cargo
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Weight
				and balance
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Describe
				the relationship between UA mass and structural stress.

Describe
				why mass should be limited to ensure adequate margins of
				strength.

Describe
				the relationship between UA mass and aircraft performance.

Describe
				why UA mass should be limited to ensure adequate aircraft
				performance.

Depending
				on the type of operation, describe the relationship between
				centre-of-gravity (CG) position and stability/controllability of
				the UA.

Describe
				the consequences if the CG is in front of the forward limit.

Describe
				the consequences if the CG is behind the aft limit.

Describe
				the relationship between CG position and aircraft performance.

Describe
				the effects of the CG position on the performance parameters
				(speed, altitude, endurance, and range).

Be
				familiar with the abbreviations regarding mass and balance, e.g.
				(maximum) take-off mass ((M)TOM), (maximum) landing mass ((M)LM),
				basic empty mass (BEM), dry operating mass (DOM), operating mass
				(OM), and zero-fuel mass (ZFM).

Describe
				the effects of changes in the load when dropping an object.

Describe
				the effects of an unintended loss of the load.
Rationale:
				Mass and balance are extremely important for a UA. A UA that is
				not in balance may become difficult to control. Therefore, the
				overall balance should be considered when adding payloads,
				attaching gimbals, etc.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Load
				securing and awareness of dangerous goods
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Calculate
				the MTOM and the MLM.

Explain
				the reasons for restraining or securing cargo loads.

Describe
				the basic methods of restraining or securing loads.

Explain
				why the transport of dangerous goods by air is subject to an
				additional training module.

State
				that certain articles and substances, which would otherwise be
				classified as dangerous goods, may be exempted if they are part
				of the UA equipment.

Rationale:
				The safe operation of the UAS requires to weigh all cargo in the
				UA (or provide an accurate estimate of weight using ‘standard’
				values), load it correctly, and secure it to prevent loss or
				movement of the cargo during the flight.
Loading
				should be performed in accordance with the applicable regulations
				and limitations. The UAS operator’s loading procedures should
				be in accordance with the instructions given by the person that
				has the overall responsibility for the loading process for a
				particular UA flight. These loading instructions should match the
				requirements for cargo distribution that are included in the UA
				load and trim sheet.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#808080">
Transport
				of dangerous goods
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Safe
				transport of dangerous goods
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Explain
				the terminology relevant to dangerous goods.

Be
				able to recognise dangerous goods and understand their labelling.

Be
				able to interpret the documentation related to dangerous goods.

Recognise
				dangerous goods by using ‘safety data sheets’ and the
				consumer labelling of the Globally Harmonized System of
				Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS).

Explain
				that the provisions for the transport of dangerous goods by air
				are included in ICAO Doc 9284 ‘Technical Instructions for the
				Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air’.

State
				the emergency/reporting procedures in case of an event with
				dangerous goods, including that in the event of a
				dangerous-goods-related emergency regarding the UA, the remote
				pilot should inform the ATC organisation of the transport of
				dangerous goods.

Explain
				the principles of compatibility and segregation of dangerous
				goods.

Explain
				the special requirements for loading radioactive materials.

Explain
				the use of the dangerous goods list.

Explain
				the procedures for collecting safety data, e.g. reporting
				accidents, incidents, and occurrences with dangerous goods.
Note:
				The learning objectives should be derived from the Technical
				Instructions and should be commensurate with the personnel
				responsibilities.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#808080" rowspan="5">
Operations
				with multiple UASs and swarms
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Limitations
				related to human factors
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Understand
				the human performance limitations in an operation with multiple
				UASs, including UAS swarms.
List
				the vital actions that the remote pilot and the persons who
				assist the remote pilot should perform in case of an emergency
				descent of the multiple/swarming UASs.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
CRM
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Explain
				the importance of CRM for operations with multiple UASs and
				swarms.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Navigating
				multiple platforms
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Describe
				how to navigate multiple platforms.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Recognising
				system failures
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Describe
				the different failures that may potentially occur during
				multiple/swarming UAS operations.

Explain
				what to do in the event of a failure.
Recognise
				that the remote pilot can override the system in the event of a
				failure.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Emergency
				containment procedures
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
List
				the different emergency containment procedures and describe the
				basic conditions for each kind of emergency.
Describe
				the recovery techniques in the event of engine or battery failure
				during multiple/swarming UAS operations.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#808080" rowspan="2">
UAS
				launch and recovery using special equipment
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Operating
				procedures
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Explain
				the specific procedures for launch and recovery operations.
Explain
				the impact on the UA’s behaviour when the systems for launch
				and recovery are operated from a moving vehicle, including ships.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Recognising
				failures
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Describe
				the different failures that may occur during launch and recovery
				operations.

Explain
				what to do in the event of a failure.
Describe
				the cases where the remote pilot can override the system in the
				event of a failure.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#808080" rowspan="6">
Flying
				over hilly environment
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Temperature
				inversions
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Describe
				the following:

				—	the
				effect of thermic-induced turbulence near the Earth’s surface;

				—	surface
				effects;

				—	diurnal
				and seasonal variations;

				—	the
				effect of clouds; and

				—	the
				effect of wind.
Rationale:
				The temperature can affect the density altitude. If the UA flies
				on a hot and humid day, the remote pilot will experience poor UA
				performance: as the temperature increases, the air molecules
				spread out. As a result, the propellers or motors of the UA do
				not have much air to grab on to.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Orographic
				lifting
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Describe
				the effect of exploiting orographic lifting (i.e. slope or ridge)
				and the actions required.

Describe
				the vertical movements, wind shear, and turbulence, which are
				typical of hilly environment.
Rationale:
				Orographic lifting occurs when an air mass is forced from a low
				elevation to a higher elevation as it moves over rising terrain.
				As the air mass gains altitude, it quickly cools down
				adiabatically, which can raise the relative humidity to 100 %,
				create clouds and, under the right conditions, cause
				precipitation<a href="#_ftn168" name="_ftnref168">[167]</a>.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Higher
				winds through passes
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Describe
				the effects of wind shear and the actions required when wind
				shear is encountered at take-off and approach.

Describe
				the precautions to be taken when wind shear is suspected at
				take-off and approach.

Describe
				the effects of wind shear and the actions required following
				entry into strong downdraught wind shear.

Describe
				the influence of a mountainous area on a frontal passage.
Rationale:
				In mountainous environment, the wind blows smoothly on the
				windward side of the mountain. On the leeward side, the wind
				follows the contours of the terrain and can be quite turbulent:
				this is called a katabatic wind. The stronger the wind, the
				higher the downward pressure. Such a wind will push the UA down
				towards the surface of the mountain. If the remote pilot does not
				know how to recognise a downdraft, which is downward moving air,
				the situation can become quite challenging.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Mountain
				waves
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Explain
				the origin and formation of mountain waves.

State
				the conditions necessary for the formation of mountain waves.

Describe
				the structure and properties of mountain waves.

Explain
				how mountain waves may be identified through their associated
				meteorological phenomena.

Explain
				that mountain wave effects may exceed the performance or
				structural capability of the UA.

Explain
				that mountain wave effects may be propagated from low to high
				levels.
Indicate
				the turbulent zones (mountain waves, rotors) on a drawing of a
				mountain chain.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
High-
				and low-pressure patterns
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Describe
				the movements of fronts and pressure systems, and the life cycle
				of a midlatitude depression.

State
				the rules for predicting the direction and the speed of movement
				of fronts.

State
				the difference in the speed of cold and warm fronts.
State
				the rules for predicting the direction and the speed of frontal
				depressions.
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Density
				altitude effects
</td>
<td bgcolor="#d9d9d9">
Define
				pressure altitude and air density altitude.

Explain
				the effects of all-up mass (AUM), pressure, temperature, density
				altitude, and humidity.

Explain
				the influence of density altitude on the equilibrium of forces
				and moments in a stable hover, if applicable.

Rationale:
				Higher-density altitude means thinner air, and thinner air means
				that the remote pilot will experience poor UA performance. The
				propellers or motors of the UA do not have much air to grab on
				to. Lower-density altitude means thicker, denser air, and higher
				UA performance.
This
				knowledge is very important when the remote pilot flies in a
				mountainous or other high-elevation environment.
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

---

[[167]](#_ftnref168) For
examples of such service providers, see the footnote in E.6 ‘OSOs
related to the deterioration of external systems supporting UAS
operations’ of [Annex E
to AMC1 Article 11](https://dxweb.easa.europa.eu/dx4/topics/part-uas_annexi012e.docx) of the UAS Regulation.

Compare / EASA/ Incorporated Amendments/ Compare & Highlight Differences

AMC3 UAS.SPEC.050(1)(d) Responsibilities of the UAS operator

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